Class 10 Social Science — Complete NCERT Solutions

(a) Giuseppe Mazzini:

• Italian Revolutionary: Born in Genoa in 1807, Mazzini became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. At the age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
• Founding Secret Societies: He subsequently founded two underground societies: Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.
• Vision of Unified Republic: Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. Therefore, Italy could not remain a patchwork of small states and kingdoms; it had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. Metternich described him as 'the most dangerous enemy of our social order'.

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour:

• Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont: Cavour led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than Italian.
• Diplomatic Alliance: Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
• Architect of Italian Unification: Combined regular troops with armed volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, liberating the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1860, crowning Victor Emmanuel II king of united Italy in 1861.

(c) The Greek War of Independence:

• Mobilisation of Nationalist Feelings: Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. Revolutionary nationalism sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks in 1821.
• Support from Diaspora and Western Europe: Nationalists received support from exiled Greeks and West Europeans sympathetic to ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the 'cradle of European civilisation' (e.g., Lord Byron organized funds and fought in Greece).
• Treaty of Constantinople (1832): Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent sovereign nation.

(d) Frankfurt Parliament:

• All-German National Assembly: In 1848, middle-class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans came together in Frankfurt and voted for an all-German National Assembly.
• Convening at St. Paul's Church: On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives drafted a constitution for a German nation headed by a constitutional monarchy.
• Rejection and Dissolution: Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected the crown and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. The parliament was disbanded by Prussian troops.

(e) The Role of Women in Nationalist Struggles:

• Active Mass Participation: Women formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, and took part in political meetings and demonstrations.
• Denial of Suffrage Rights: Despite their active participation, they were denied voting rights and were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery at the Frankfurt parliament.

The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that created a sense of collective identity among the French people:

1. Ideals of La Patrie and Le Citoyen: The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. New National Symbols: A new French tricolour flag replaced the former royal standard.
3. Elected National Assembly: The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
4. Hymns, Oaths and Commemoration: New hymns were composed (such as the Marseillaise), oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
5. Centralised Administrative System: A centralized administrative system formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
6. Uniform Economic System: Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
7. Promotion of Common National Language: Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as spoken in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

1. Identity of Marianne and Germania:

• Marianne (France): Marianne was the female allegory of the French nation. Her characteristics were drawn from Liberty and the Republic — the red cap, the tricolour, and the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares, coins, and postage stamps.
• Germania (Germany): Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

2. Importance of their Portrayal:

• Female allegories gave the abstract idea of the nation a concrete physical form.
• Portraying the nation as a motherland or heroic figure instilled feelings of collective belonging, devotion, and patriotic pride.

The process of German unification was completed through the following historic stages:

1. Failure of Liberal Middle-Class Effort (1848): The 1848 initiative by middle-class Germans to create a nation-state governed by an elected parliament at Frankfurt was crushed by the monarchy, military, and Prussian Junkers.
2. Prussia Takes the Leadership: Prussia took on the leadership of national unification under Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck.
3. Policy of 'Blood and Iron': Bismarck followed a policy of militarism and diplomatic alliances to eliminate rival powers.
4. Three Wars over Seven Years: Prussia fought three decisive wars over seven years — with Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870–71) — all ending in Prussian victory.
5. Proclamation of the German Empire (1871): On 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, Kaiser William I of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of the united German Empire.

Napoleon introduced revolutionary administrative reforms known as the Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) across France and conquered territories:

1. Abolition of Feudal Privileges: Abolished all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured property rights.
2. Abolition of Serfdom and Manorial Dues: Simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
3. Removal of Guild Restrictions: In towns, guild restrictions were removed, promoting artisanal and mercantile freedom.
4. Transport and Communication Improvements: Built modern roads, postal systems, and improved transport infrastructure.
5. Uniform Laws and Currency: Standardised weights, measures, and a single national currency facilitated commerce and movement of goods.

1. Meaning of the 1848 Revolution of the Liberals:

In 1848, parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed, and starving peasants, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was under way in France, Germany, Italy, Poland, and Austria-Hungary demanding constitutionalism and national unification.

2. Ideas Supported by the Liberals:

• Political Ideas: Government by consent, end of autocratic monarchy, written constitution, parliamentary representative government, and freedom of the press and association.
• Economic Ideas: Freedom of markets, abolition of state-imposed trade tariffs (as achieved by the Zollverein customs union), and protection of private property.
• Social Ideas: Equality before the law, though voting rights were initially restricted to property-owning men.

The formation of the nation-state in Britain was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution, but of a long-drawn-out parliamentary process:

1. Absence of a British Nation Prior to the 18th Century: Primary identities were ethnic (English, Welsh, Scot, Irish) with separate cultures.
2. Ascendance of English Wealth and Power: The English nation steadily grew in wealth and power, extending its dominance.
3. Parliamentary Supremacy (1688): The English parliament seized power from the monarchy in 1688, forging a nation-state with England at the centre.
4. Act of Union (1707): The Act of Union between England and Scotland formed the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain', suppressing Scottish Gaelic culture and Highland traditions.
5. Subjugation of Ireland (1801): Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants. Following Wolfe Tone’s revolt (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the UK in 1801.
6. British Cultural Dominance: The Union Jack, the English anthem (God Save Our Noble King), and the English language were promoted.

The Balkans became the most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 due to:

1. Geographical and Ethnic Diversity: Inhabited by diverse Slav populations (Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Croatia, etc.).
2. Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire: The collapse of Ottoman control and spread of romantic nationalism made the area explosive.
3. Failure of Modernisation: Subject nationalities broke away one by one and declared independence.
4. Intense Mutual Jealousies: Balkan states were fiercely jealous and sought territorial expansion at each other’s expense.
5. Big Power Rivalry: European powers (Russia, Germany, Britain, Austro-Hungary) competed over trade, colonies, and naval supremacy in the Balkans, culminating in the First World War (1914).